Sunday, December 26, 2010

Human DNA

Medical Information,


Introduction to Genes and DNA
DNA code is a sequence of chemicals that form information that control how humans are made and how they work. It is a digital code but it is not binary, but quaternary with 4 distinct items. The encoding information in an ordered sequence of 4 different symbols called "bases", typically denoted A, C, G, and T.
·         A: adenosine
·         C: cytosine
·         G: guanine
·         T: thymine
These 4 substances are the fundamental "bits" of information in the genetic code, and are called "base pairs" because there is actually 2 substances per "bit", as discussed later. Everything else is built on top of this basis of 4 DNA digits.
The entirety of human DNA code, called the "human genome", is about 3 million bases in total. Every human being has 2 copies of this code, one copy from each parent, so a human's cell DNA contains a total of around 6 billion bases. In computer terms, this is around 6 Gigabytes of symbols, or more like 1 Gigabyte if compacted, since it's about 2 binary bits of information per A/C/G/T base pair. DNA molecules are linear in a twisted double-helix, with a start and an end, and do not contain any cycles.
chromosomes: These 6 billion odd base pairs are split amongst 46 chromosomes. Each person gets 2 pairs of chromosomes, 23 from each parent, to total 46 chromosomes per human cell. A chromosome is the largest form of a DNA molecule, with a large sequence of DNA codes, of differing lengths, usually hundreds of millions of base pairs in each chromosome. chromosomes are independent molecules of DNA, with the typical double-helix, a start and end, but no cycles. chromosomes are physically large enough to be seen on high power microscopes.
Genes: Each chromosome has subsequences of DNA bases that encode particular features, and these are called "genes". Thus genes are not independent molecules, but are abstract sequences within chromosomes. All genes have different lengths. Genes are too small to be physically seen on a microscope, but are analyzed using indirect chemical, molecular, and computational methods. The total number of distinct genes in the human genome is believed to be around 30,000 genes according to the Human Genome Project.
So the hierarchy of terminology for genetic components is something like:
·         Base pair: the smallest element, a single DNA base-4 compound A, C, G, or T.
·         Gene: a medium-size sequence of around 100,000 DNA base pairs, like a sub-module
·         chromosome: a large sequence of hundreds of millions of DNA base pairs, like a computer program file
·         Human genome: the entirety of human DNA program code: 2 pairs of 23 distinct chromosomes, adding to around 6 billion DNA base pairs
Every individual has a unique genetic program, though all human DNA shares much common code too. A lot of genes and other DNA subsequences are modified or move around within the DNA of a species, such as when they are inherited from parents at conception. DNA does not usually change within a particular individual's body, though this can occur rarely from cell mutations (e.g. some cancer cells) and also genetic damage such as from radiation or toxic chemical exposure.
chromosomes
Each person has 46 chromosomes, in pairs of 2, with 23 from each parent. So there are really 23 distinct chromosomes, and each body cell effectively has 2 different copies of the DNA code, half from each parent.
Each chromosome is distinct and whole. They are ordered, and have clear start and end sequences. In a sense, they are like a file of computer code.
The 23 distinct chromosomes are known and named and have a common structure for each human. The first 22 chromosomes are just named in numbers, simply chromosome 1 through chromosome 22. The name for one of these 22 chromosomes is an "autosome".
The 23rd chromosome is the sex chromosome, which is called either "X" or "Y". Every person has a pair of sex chromosomes, one from each parent. However, unlike the other 22 pairs of chromosomes, a human does not necessarily have 2 similar chromosomes. A male person has a pair of different chromosomes, an X and a Y chromosome, and is usually written as XY. A female has two X chromosomes and is called XX.
The key issue about chromosomes is to understand their role in reproduction. Firstly, let's make some observations about reproduction:
·         Children are similar to both parents, with similar traits, but are not identical to either parent.
·         Siblings look different, despite sharing the same parents.
·         Male and female children occur in about a 50-50 split.
To understand these features, we have to understand how chromosomes are distributed during reproduction. Every person has 46 chromosomes, 23 from the father, 23 from the mother. But the father has 46 chromosomes and so does the mother. Each sperm cell in the father gets 23 chromosomes, and similarly an egg cell gets 23 chromosomes from the mother's set of 46. For each autosome 1..22, the gamete (sperm or egg) gets one of the chromosomes, randomly, without regard to which grandparent the chromosome originally came from. For the sex chromosomes, the egg cell gets one of the mother's X chromosomes, and the sperm gets either the X or Y from the father's chromosomes. Hence, the number of permutations of chromosomes in a father's sperm cell is 2^23, and similarly the number of egg chromosome permuations is also 2^23. So even with the same parents, and even with only entire chromosomes inherited, the number of siblings that can be created is about 2^46.
However, chromosomes are changed during reproduction. They are a natural part of the process. Small or large chunks of chromosome material are swapped during reproductive cell creation. This is called crossover. Thus, the total number of possibilities is even huger than the number purely from simple swapping over.
Non-Gene DNA Sequences
Genes are the best understood subsequence of DNA code. Most genes clearly encode the data sequence representing a particular protein. However, all of the genes together are only a small part of DNA code. The 30,000 odd genes in human DNA might only make up 4% of human DNA.
So what is the other DNA code for? These DNA sequences are the least understood of all genetic issues. The main theory is that these DNA sequences are the control mechanisms, that control when particular genes are activated. If the genes are the data sequences for proteins, the remainder must be the real code. This code presumably controls when the genes are activated, so that human growth follows its normal timetables. It probably also controls how much a gene is activated, controlling how much of each protein is produced by a gene.
DNA and RNA
There are actually 2 main types of nucleic substances within cell nuclei that process information. DNA is the basic form within chromosomes, that is hard-coded into every cell. RNA is a more temporary form that is used to process subsequences of DNA messages. RNA is an intermediate form used to execute the portions of DNA that a cell is using. For example, in the synthesis of proteins, DNA is copied to RNA, which is then used to create proteins: DNA->RNA->Proteins.
The structure of DNA and RNA are very similar. They are both ordered sequences of 4 types of substances: ACGT for DNA, and ACGU for RNA. Thus RNA uses the same three ACG substances, but uses U (uracil) instead of T (thymine). The molecules uracil and thymine are only slightly different chemically. In DNA, there is pairing between AT and CG, and in RNA, the pairings are AU and CG, but since RNA is not double-stranded, this pairing is much rarer. Hence, RNA has the 4 substances:
·         A: adenosine
·         C: cytosine
·         G: guanine
·         U: uracil
Typically, DNA is created from RNA, and this is done by faithfully copying the sequence of base pairs, with the only change converting T to U. Hence, an RNA copy of a DNA sequence encodes the identical information, though it uses a slightly different set of 4 substances.
The differences between DNA and RNA are also many. The underlying sugar molecule that traps the 4 bases is different: deoxyribose in DNA, ribose in RNA. DNA is two strands wrapped in a double-helix, but RNA is a single strand.
Genes: Protein Data Sequences in the DNA Code
Some parts of DNA sequences are known to be purely data. These are the "genes". The best understood aspect of DNA coding is the encoding of amino acid information in genes that is used by the body to synthesize proteins. These are data blocks that represent protein structures.
All proteins are substances made up of only 20 basic building blocks called amino acids. Proteins are ordered sequences of these 20 amino acids. Another terminology is that an amino acid is a "peptide" and a protein is a sequence of many peptides called a "polypeptide".
So how does DNA encode the structure of a protein? It uses triplets of base pairs. There are 4x4x4=64 possible combinations in a base pair triplet, and only 20 amino acids. Some extra codes are used as start and stop signal markers at each end of the data sequence. Other triplets are mapped so that more than one triplet can represent a particular amino acid. However, the representation is unique across all DNA mapping base pair triplets to the 20 amino acids:
·         1. Phenylalanine (Phe): UUU, UUC
·         2. Leucine (Leu): UUA, UUG
·         3. Isoleucine (Ile): AUU, AUC, AUA
·         4. Methionine (Met): AUG
·         5. Valine (Val): GUU, GUC, GUA, GUG
·         6. Serine (Ser): UCU, UCC, UCA, UCG, AGU, ACG
·         7. Proline (Pro): CCU, CCC, CCA, CCG
·         8. Threonine (Thr): ACU, ACC, ACA, ACG
·         9. Alanine (Ala): GCU, GCC, GCA, GCG
·         10. Tyrosine (Tyr): UAU, UAC
·         11. Histidine (His): CAU, CAC
·         12. Glutamine (Gln): CAA, CAG
·         13. Asparagine (Asn): AAU, AAC
·         14. Lysine (Lys): AAA, AAG
·         15. Aspartic acid (Asp): GAU, GAC
·         16. Glutamic acid (Glu): GAA, GAG
·         17. Cysteine (Cys): UGU, UGC
·         18. Tryptophan (Trp): UGG
·         19. Arginine (Arg): CGU, CGC, CGA, CGG, AGA, AGG
·         20. Glycine (Gly): GGU, GGC, GGA, GGG
In addition, the following triplet codes are special:
·         STOP: UAA, UAG, UGA
·         START: AUG (same code as the Methionine amino acid)
Clearly, there are not unique 1-1 mappings of triplets to amino acids. However, although there is redundancy, it is not ambiguous. Any triplet can represent only 1 amino acid.
Why this redundancy? Perhaps there is some meaning to it? Perhaps simply a primitive form of error prevention? Perhaps it is simply an accident of nature that occurs because 3 digits were needed, since 2 DNA digits could only encode 4x4=16 codes, which is not enough to represent the 20 amino acids and start/stop codes.
This DNA encoding appears to be almost the same for all genetics on the planet. A few species of single-celled protists have slightly different codes.
The DNA data sequences are of varying length depending on the size of the protein. Proteins can range from tiny proteins with about 50 amino acids to huge proteins with 5,000 amino acids.
The DNA start and stop sequences are not the same as the RNA start and stop triplets. DNA has a promoter sequence to show where RNA should start to be copied, and a terminator sequence to tell RNA where to stop. The RNA then uses only a single triplet as the start and stop markers. The DNA promoter and terminator sequences are more complex.
Introns: Surprisingly, not all of the DNA code is useful. Certain sequences called "introns" are simply occurred. These are like comments in protein coding sequences. They are transcribed to mRNA properly, but then they are excised from the mRNA to produce the final mRNA. The resulting mRNA is the same order and codes as the original mRNA, but with the introns sequences removed.
RNA Data Sequences in DNA
Proteins are not the only substances that are synthesized directly from data within the DNA. Some forms of RNA are specialized, and also have their formula encoded directly in digital DNA formulae.
Not all types of RNA are temporary intermediate forms with their form depending on whatever DNA they are copying. There are certain forms of RNA that have a particular form that is the same across all individuals. Some of these special-purpose RNA forms are:
·         tRNA: transfer RNA
·         rRNA: ribosome RNA
There are exactly 20 forms of tRNA, one each to transfer a particular amino acid. tRNA molecules contain about 75-80 bases. tRNA recognizes one of the 64 triplets, and matches it to one of the 20 amino acids. Since there are 20 tRNA types, and not 64, each tRNA molecule has to recognize more than one triplet ordering as a match.
The DNA code contains multiple repetitions of the codes for tRNA and rRNA. About 280 copies are spread over 5 chromosomes. Presumably, this allows each cell to make multiple copies of tRNA and rRNA molecules at once from its single copy of the DNA.
Executing the DNA Program: Parallel Execution
Every cell has a full copy of the entire DNA, complete with around 6 billion DNA base pairs jammed into the cell's nucleus. Whenever cells divide to replicate, they duplicate the entire DNA code so that each cell retains a full DNA copy.
The only cells that do not have the entire DNA code are reproductive sperm or egg cells that have only 23 chromosomes each, and thus only about a half copy of DNA.
Summary
·         DNA is digital, but is quaternary, not binary.
·         DNA is a base-4 code using the digits A, C, G and T.
·         Proteins are a base-20 code using the 20 amino acids.
·         DNA represents a protein has an ordered sequence of base-4 triplets, using 64 possible values to 20 amino acids.
·         Comments: Some DNA sequences are ignored: introns


Saturday, December 18, 2010

Mossad

This is Extreme World Info,

Mossad
The Institute for Intelligence and Special Tasks
ha-Mossad le-Modiin ule-Tafkidim Meyuhadim


Mossad Seal

Mossad [Hebrew for "institution"] has responsibility for human intelligence collection, covert action, and counterterrorism. Its focus is on Arab nations and organizations throughout the world. Mossad also is responsible for the clandestine movement of Jewish refugees out of Syria, Iran, and Ethiopia. Mossad agents are active in the former communist countries, in the West, and at the UN.
Mossad is headquartered in Tel Aviv. The staff of Mossad was estimated during the late 1980s to number between 1,500 to 2,000 personnel, with more recent estimates placing the staff at an estimated 1,200 personnel. The identity of the director of Mossad was traditionally a state secret, or at least not widely publicized, but, in March 1996, the Government announced the appointment of Major General Danny Yatom as the replacement for Shabtai Shavit, who resigned in early 1996. Danny Yatom resigned on February 24, 1998, following the release of the Ciechanover Commission report which dealt with the failed attempt to assassinate Khalid Meshaal, a top Hamas political leader, and thus found faults with his performance as head of Mossad. Yatom was replace in early March 1998 by Efraim Halevy, then Israel's representative to the European Union. Halevy, as a Mossad agent, had previously worked behind the scenes to help negotiate the peace treaty between Israel and Jordan.
Formerly known as the Central Institute for Coordination and the Central Institute for Intelligence and Security, Mossad was formed on 01 April 1951. Mossad was established by then Prime Minister David Ben Gurion, who gave as Mossad's primary directive: "For our state which since its creation has been under siege by its enemies. Intelligence constitutes the first line of defence...we must learn well how to recognise what is going on around us."
Mossad has a total of eight departments, though some details of the internal organization of the agency remain obscure.
·         Collections Department is the largest, with responsibility for espionage operations, with offices abroad under both diplomatic and unofficial cover. The department consists of a number of desks which are responsible for specific geographical regions, directing case officers based at "stations" around the world, and the agents they control.
·         Political Action and Liaison Department conducts political activities and liaison with friendly foreign intelligence services and with nations with which Israel does not have normal diplomatic relations. In larger stations, such as Paris, Mossad customarily had under embassy cover two regional controllers: one to serve the Collections Department and the other the Political Action and Liaison Department.
·         Special Operations Division, also known as Metsada, conducts highly sensitive assassination, sabotage, paramilitary, and psychological warfare projects.
·         LAP (Lohamah Psichlogit)Department is responsible for psychological warfare, propaganda and deception operations.
·         Research Department is responsible for intelligence production, including daily situation reports, weekly summaries and detailed monthly reports. The Department is organized into 15 geographically specialized sections or "desks", including the USA, Canada and Western Europe, Latin America, Former Soviet Union, China, Africa, the Maghreb (Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia), Libya, Iraq, Jordan, Syria, Saudi Arabia, the United Arab Emirates and Iran. A "nuclear" desk is focused on special weapons related issues.
Israel's most celebrated spy, Eli Cohen, was recruited by Mossad during the 1960s to infiltrate the top echelons of the Syrian government. Cohen radioed information to Israel for two years before he was discovered and publicly hanged in Damascus Square. Another Mossad agent, Wolfgang Lotz, established himself in Cairo, became acquainted with high-ranking Egyptian military and police officers, and obtained information on missile sites and on German scientists working on the Egyptian rocket program. In 1962 and 1963, in a successful effort to intimidate the Germans, several key scientists in that program were targets of assassination attempts. Mossad also succeeded in seizing eight missile boats under construction for Israel in France, but which had been embargoed by French president Charles de Gaulle in December 1968.
In 1960, Mossad carried out one of its most celebrated operations, the kidnapping of Nazi war criminal Adolph Eichmann from Argentina. Another kidnapping, in 1986, brought to Israel for prosecution the nuclear technician, Mordechai Vanunu, who had revealed details of the Israeli nuclear weapons program to a London newspaper. During the 1970s, Mossad assassinated several Arabs connected with the Black September terrorist group. Mossad inflicted a severe blow on the PLO in April 1988, when an assassination team invaded a well-guarded residence in Tunis to murder Arafat's deputy, Abu Jihad, considered to be the principal PLO planner of military and terrorist operations against Israel. Gerald Bull, a Canadian scientist who developed the famed "Super Gun" for Iraq was killed by the Mossad at his Brussels apartment in March 1990, effectively halting the development of the Supergun project.
Egyptian security services reported the discovery of a total of seven Israeli espionage networks during 1996, which is a significant increase compared to the 20 similar networks discovered in the previous 15 years.
And Mossad's record has also been blemished by a few embarrasing failures. In Lillehammer, Norway, on 07 January 1974, Mossad agents mistakenly killed Ahmad Boushiki, an Algerian waiter carrying a Moroccan passport, whom they mistook for PLO security head Ali Ahmad Salameh, believed to have masterminded the 1972 massacre of Israeli athletes at the Munich Olympics [Salameh was killed in a 1979 car-bomb explosion in Lebanon]. Following the attack, the Mossad agents were arrested and tried before a Norwegian court. Five Israeli agents were convicted and served short jail sentences, though Israel denied responsibility for the murder. In February 1996, the Israeli government agreed to compensate the family of Ahmad Boushiki.
On 15 November 1995, Prime Minister Yitzak Rabin was assassinated by Yigal Amir, an Israeli citizen. Following the controversy over the failure of intelligence to protect Rabin, and the embarrassment over the mistaken assassination of a Swedish national, the Director Geneneral of Mossad, known only as 'S', was forced into retirement. On 24 March 1996, Prime Minister Shimon Peres appointed Major General Danny Yatom as the new Director General of Mossad, the first Director of Mossad to ever be publically identified.
On 24 September 1997, Mossad operatives attempted to assassinate Khalid Meshaal, a top political leader of the Palestinian group Hamas. The assassins entered Jordan on fake Canadian, and injected Meshaal with a poison. Jordan was able to wring a number of concessions out of Israel in the aftermath of the fiasco, including the release of the founder of Hamas, Shaykh Ahmad Yasin, from an Israeli jail.
Ephraim Halevy, a nephew of the late Sir Isaiah Berlin [who helped to negotiate a peace deal with Jordan], became the new head of Mossad after two bungled operations led to the arrests of agents in Switzerland and Jordan. Mossad scaled down overseas assassinations after the bungled operations in the late 1990s. But by 2002 Prime Minister Ariel Sharon decided to remove Halevy, after the two clashed repeatedly about what strategy to adopt against Palestinian violence
In October 2002 General Meir Dagan, who served in the Israeli Army with Ariel Sharon, and assisted him during his election campaign, was confirmed as head of Mossad. Dagan led an undercover commando unit that tracked and killed Palestinian militants in the Gaza Strip. Sharon wanted Mossad to go back to the undercover and special operations for which it was renowned.

This Post Last Update Edit Date : 13 May 2013

Wednesday, December 8, 2010

Mein Qatray Mein Samandar Ko Dubona Chaahun

Aalam-e-Hijr Mein Soya Hun, Na Sona Chaahun
Mein Teri Zaat Se Mayoos Na Hona Chaahun

Gul Tere Dil Mein Khilain Aur Mehek Jaon Mein
Isi Rishtay Mein Har Insaan Ko Pirona Chaahun

Kiun Ganwaara Ho Tere Dard Mein Bhee Shirkat-e-Gair
TU Jo Yaad Aaye Tou Tanhaayi Mein Rona Chaahun

Justuju Ke Lye Rehta Hai Bahaana Darkaar
Kho Ke Paaya Jisay, Paakar Ose Khona Chaahun

Chaah Raha Hai Mere Andar Gham-e-Anjaam Ka Abar
Khush Bhee Hota Hun Tou Aankhon Ko Bhigona Chaahun

Mein Hun Ik Tarfa Bhikaari, Koi Meri Bhee Suno
Raat Ke Farsh Pe Kirnon Ka Bichona Chaahun

Yun Tou Ik Phool Ki Patti Se Behel Jaata Hun
Mein Machal Jaon Tou Sehra Ka Khilona Chaahun

Mera Mansab Nahee Paighambar-e-Fun Bannay Ka
Mein Tou Ahsaas Ko Lafzon Mein Samona Chaahun

Is Zamaanay Ka Ajab Tarz-e-Tassawaf Hai
Ke Mein Qatray Mein Samandar Ko Dubona Chaahun

Saturday, December 4, 2010

Lihaaz

Apne dil ko samjha k dekhenge;
Aaj tujhko bhulake dekhenge.
Dekhna hai dil pe kya guzerti hai;
Tera ek khat jalake dekhenge.
Dariya -e- Dil mein koi mauj nahi ;
Aaj aanshu bahake dekhenge.
Chhodker tujhko door jayenge ;
Gum -e- zudai uthake dekhenge .
umra ne kis kadra diye dhoke ;
aaine ko batake dekhenge.
Hum aaj rat roshni k liye;
Charag -e- dil jalake dekhenge.
Jinka kehna tum jiyo ya maro;
unki baton mein aake dekhenge.
Sath guzre haseen lamhon ki;
yaadon ko hum bhulake dekhenge.
Dekhein phir "DHANANJAY" unka rawaiya;
unse nazrein churake dekhenge.




Mere malik kyun mujhe isk de diya toone ;
Kyu mere dil ko ye ehsas de diya tune.
Ya khuda mujhko bata pyar hua hi kyun tha;
Ye kaisa gum meri kismat mein likh diya tune .
Mai bhi to jee sakta tha mohabbat kiye bagair ;’
Kyun ye dard mere dil ko de diya tune .
Wo bhi zinda hain jo wafa ko jante bhi nahi;
Mujhe hi kyun mizaaz -e- ashikaan diya tune.
Reh – reh ke tadpata hai jo meri hadon ko ;
Kyun aisa khaw in aankhon ko de diya tune .
Chain dhoonde se na mile na koi hal hi mile.
Ye kya sawal zindgi ko de diya tune .
Kitni pursukoon thi kabhi meri duniya ;
Ye kya babal meri jaan ko de diya tune .





Ye wo jalwa hai jo khud bekarar hota hai ;
Isk majboor nahi khud mukhtar hota hai .
Fakat chahat ka matlab hi yahan mohabbat nahi hota ;
Ager wo pehlunaseen ho to poyar hota hai ;
Dil se dil ka mil jana hi bahut khoob nahi ;
Wasl -e- wasukoon ho to pyar hota hai.
Nakamiyon se irade to akser toot jate hain;
Jajwa -e- kuchh ker gujer ho to pyar hota hai.
Ye mana khuda karta hai taqdeeron ka faisla ;
Baazi -e- jaan-fanahi ho to pyar hota hai.
Jinhein hai der to wo lut jayeinge ek roj yakinan ;
Khouf -e- anjam ger na ho to pyar hota hai.
Humne bhi kuchh seekha hai tere sath "DHANANJAY";
Aur isk ka mara faquat zar zar rota hai.





Yoon to unse milna bari baat nahi ;
Bus mujhe aage peechhe ghoomna pasand nahi.
Kuchh kam hai abhi shehar mein apni sanasai ;
Yaani ki rutba theek se baland nahi.
Shayad wo aas paas hi nikle hain ghoomne;
Darwaja abhi theek se jo band nahi.
kai roj hue khat ka aaya nahi jabab;
kya wo mere mashware se rajamand nahi.
samjhe jo teri baat jahn-o-dil se "DHANANJAY"
ab her aadmi to itna aklmand nahi.





Hum Ko Shouk Hai Itna Fareb Khaane Ka,
Dekh Hi Nahi Sakte Asal Rukh Zamane Ka,
Dhushmano Ki Mehfil Mein Ashna Se Chehre Hain,
Haa Yehi Hai Khamyaza Dosti Badhane Ka,
Woh Jo Chehre Pe Likhi Dastan Na Padh Paaye,
Faaida Nahi Hai Unko Haal-E-Dil Sunane Ka,
Qadar Ashar Jis Mein Ek Bhi Nahi Nikla,
Kyun Lihaaz Hai Humko Zamane Ka.

Sunday, November 21, 2010

Cancers List

A to Z List of Cancers

A
B
C
D
[No Entries]
E
F
[No Entries]
G
H
I
J
[No Entries]
K
L
M
N
O
P
Q
[No Entries]
R
S
T
U
V
W
X
[No Entries]
Y
Z
[No Entries]